Why vegetarianWhat we choose to eat is one of the biggest factors in our personal impact on the environment. A 2006 study, examining the impact of a typical week’s eating, showed that plant-based diets are better for the environment than those based on meat42. A vegan, organic diet had the smallest environmental impact, but the single most damaging foodstuff was beef and all non-vegetarian diets required significantly greater amounts of environmental resources, such as land and water. Similarly, a 2008 study found that the transition to less meat or even a complete switch to plant-based protein food has a dramatic effect on land use17. By feeding grain and vegetables directly to people (rather than livestock) we can increase the amount of food available to everyone. By going vegetarian you will help:
The environmental arguments are strong, but many vegetarians simply believe that it is wrong to kill when there is no need to. Others love and respect animals and want to minimize their suffering. Some vegetarians are specifically opposed to intensive farming and choose vegetarianism because it sends a strong signal, guarantees you won’t be eating an animal reared in appalling conditions, and avoids the distress experienced by all animals slaughtered for their meat. Whatever their reasons for giving up meat, vegetarians benefit from much more than a clear conscience, with lower rates of heart disease, diabetes and certain cancers. There were approximately 6.5 billion people living on earth in 20081, this number is expected to rise to 9 billion by 20502 and as the world’s population continues to grow, our requirement for food will also increase. With dwindling resources and an already increasing number of undernourished people in the world, the effects could be devastating. Worldwide food production requires around 30% of the total soil available, 20% of fossil fuel energy and a major part of the fresh water flow3. Raising cattle is one of the most damaging components of agriculture4. They cause the most environmental damage of any non-human species through over-grazing, soil erosion, desertification, tropical deforestation for ranches and growing of soya for their feed, in addition to their gaseous emissions and manure products. Meat and seafood are the two most rapidly growing ingredients in the global diet and also two of the most costly in resource use. In 2006, 276 million tonnes of chicken, pork, beef and other meat were produced, 4 times as much as in 1961. On average, each person eats twice as much meat as back then (43kgs). The fishing industry harvested 141 million tonnes of seafood globally in 2005, 8 times as much as in 19505. Meat is now the single largest source of animal protein in all affluent nations6 and demand for animal flesh is expected to more than double by the year 20507. Within this timescale the livestock population is expected to rise from 60 billion farm animals to 120 billion8. In order to meet this growing appetite, animals will no doubt be reared more intensively and cheaply with factory farming and aquaculture (fish farming) causing further pollution, water and land usage. If nothing is done, the environmental impact of meat production can only increase. Diet is an important tool in working to achieve environmental sustainability. Studies on world food security estimate that an affluent diet containing meat requires up to 3 times as many resources as a vegetarian diet9. Going vegetarian is an easy way to lower your own environmental impact and help ensure worldwide food security |
Friday, September 11, 2009
Why vegetarian
22 Reasons to Go Vegetarian Right Now - benefits of vegetarian diet
22 Reasons to Go Vegetarian Right Now - benefits of vegetarian diet Your body, the planet and the animals will thank you for it Why go vegetarian? Better yet, why not go vegetarian? Former Surgeon General C. Everett Koop has said that 70 percent of all Americans are dying from diseases that are directly tied to their eating habits. Stacks of studies confirm that a diet full of fresh fruits and vegetables, grains and soy is your best bet for living a longer, healthier and more enjoyable life. At the same time, you're doing the planet a huge favor by helping to preserve natural resources and cutting down on pollution generated by animal agriculture. Plus, you may appreciate your wonderful meals even more knowing that no animals suffered along the way. There are literally hundreds of great reasons to switch to a plant-based diet; here are 22 of the best we've heard. 1 You'll live a lot longer. Vegetarians live about seven years longer, and vegans (who eat no animal products) about 15 years longer than meat eaters, according to a study from Loma Linda University. These findings are backed up by the China Health Project (the largest population study on diet and health to date), which found that Chinese people who eat the least amount of fat and animal products have the lowest risks of cancer, heart attack and other chronic degenerative diseases. And a British study that tracked 6,000 vegetarians and 5,000 meat eaters for 12 years found that vegetarians were 40 percent less likely to die from cancer during that time and 20 percent less likely to die from other diseases. 2 You'll save your heart. Cardiovascular disease is still the number one killer in the United States, and the standard American diet (SAD) that's laden with saturated fat and cholesterol from meat and dairy is largely to blame. Children as young as age 3 who are raised on fast food and junk food show early signs of heart disease, according to the Bogalusa Heart Study done at the Louisiana State University. Cardiovascular disease is found in one in nine women aged 45 to 64 and in one in three women over 65. Heart attacks are also deadlier to the fairer sex: 53 percent of women who have heart attacks die from them, compared with 47 percent of men. Today, the average American male eating a meat-based diet has a 50 percent chance of dying from heart disease. His risk drops to 15 percent if he cuts out meat; it goes to 4 percent if he cuts out meat, dairy and eggs. Partly responsible is the fact that fruits and vegetables are full of antioxidant nutrients that protect the heart and its arteries. Plus, produce contains no saturated fat or cholesterol. Incidentally, cholesterol levels for vegetarians are 14 percent lower than meat eaters. 3 You can put more money in your mutual fund. Replacing meat, chicken and fish with vegetables and fruits is estimated to cut food bills by an average of $4,000 a year. 4 You'll reduce your risk of cancer. A study in The International Journal of Cancer concluded that red meat is strongly associated with breast cancer. The National Cancer Institute says that women who eat meat every day are nearly four times more likely to get breast cancer than those who don't.. By contrast, women who consume at least one serving of vegetables a day reduce their risk of breast cancer by 20 percent to 30 percent, according to the Harvard Nurses Health Study. Studies done at the German Cancer Research Center in Heidelberg suggest that this is because vegetarians' immune systems are more effective in killing off tumor cells than meat eaters'. Studies have also found a plant-based diet helps protect against prostate, colon and skin cancers. 5 You'll add color to your plate. Meat, chicken and fish tend to come in boring shades of brown and beige, but fruits and vegetables come in all colors of the rainbow. Disease-fighting phytochemicals are responsible for giving produce their rich, varied hues. So cooking by color is a good way to ensure you re eating a variety of naturally occurring substances that boost immunity and prevent a range of illnesses. 6 You'll fit into your old jeans. On average, vegetarians are slimmer than meat eaters, and when we diet, we keep the weight off up to seven years longer. That's because diets that are higher in vegetable proteins are much lower in fat and calories than the SAD. Vegetarians are also less likely to fall victim to weight-related disorders like heart disease, stroke and diabetes. 7 You'll give your body a spring cleaning. Giving up meat helps purge the body of toxins (pesticides, environmental pollutants, preservatives) that overload our systems and cause illness. When people begin formal detoxification programs, their first step is to replace meats and dairy products with fruits and vegetables and juices. "These contain phytochemicals that help us detox naturally," says Chris Clark, M.D., medical director of The Raj, an Ayurvedic healing center in Fairfield, Iowa, which specializes in detox programs. 8 You'll make a strong political statement. Each day, 22 million animals are slaughtered to support the American appetite for meat. "It's a wonderful thing to be able to finish a delicious meal, knowing that no beings have suffered [to make it]," says Erik Marcus, author of Vegan: The New Ethics of Eating (McBooks, 1998). 9 Your meals will taste delicious. "Vegetables are endlessly interesting to cook and a joy to eat," says Deborah Madison, founding chef of Greens restaurant in San Francisco and author of Vegetarian Cooking for Everyone (Broadway Books, 1997). "It's an ever-changing parade of flavors and colors and textures and tastes. Everyone can enjoy them, but vegetarians are more likely to think about cooking and eating vegetables." 10 You'll help reduce waste and air pollution. Circle 4 Farms in Milford, Utah, which raises 2.5 million pigs every year, creates more waste than the entire city of Los Angeles. And this is just one farm. Each year, the nation's factory farms, collectively produce 2 billion tons of manure, a substance that's rated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as one of the country's top 10 pollutants. And that's not even counting the methane gas released by cows, pigs and poultry (which contributes to the greenhouse effect); the ammonia gases from urine; poison gases that emanate from manure lagoons; toxic chemicals from pesticides; and exhaust from farm equipment used to raise feed for animals. 11 Your bones will last longer. The average bone loss for a vegetarian woman at age 65 is 18 percent; for non-vegetarian women, it's double that. Researchers attribute this to the consumption of excess protein--the average meat-eating American woman eats 144 percent over the recommended daily allowance; the average man eats 175 percent more. Excess protein interferes with the absorption and retention of calcium and actually prompts the body to excrete calcium, laying the ground for the brittle bone disease osteoporosis. Animal proteins, including milk, make the blood acidic, and to balance that condition, the body pulls calcium from bones. So rather than rely on milk for calcium, vegetarians turn to dark green leafy vegetables, such as broccoli and legumes, which, calorie for calorie, are superior sources. 12 You'll help reduce famine. Right now, 72 percent of all grain produced in the United States is fed to animals raised for slaughter. It takes 15 pounds of feed to get one pound of meat. But if the grain were given directly to people, there'd be enough food to feed the entire planet. In addition, using land for animal agriculture is inefficient in terms of maximizing food production. According to the journal Soil and Water, one acre of land could produce 50,000 pounds of tomatoes, 40,000 pounds of potatoes, 30,000 pounds of carrots or just 250 pounds of beef. 13 You'll avoid toxic chemicals. The EPA estimates that nearly 95 percent of pesticide residue in our diet comes from meat, fish and dairy products. Fish, in particular, contain carcinogens (PCBs, DDT) and heavy metals (mercury, arsenic; lead, cadmium) that cannot be removed through cooking or freezing. Meat and dairy products are also laced with steroids and hormones.. 14 You'll protect yourself from food-borne illnesses. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that among Americans, there were approximately 80 million incidences of food-borne illness a year--resulting in 9,000 deaths. According to the Center for Science in the Public Interest, 25 percent of all chicken sold in the United States carries salmonella bacteria and, the CDC estimates, 70 percent to 90 percent of chickens contain the bacteria campy-lobacter (some strains of which are antibiotic-resistant), approximately 5 percent of cows carry the lethal strain of E. coli O157:H7 (which causes virulent diseases and death), and 30 percent of pigs slaughtered each year for food are infected with toxoplasmosis (caused by parasites). All of which leads Michael Klaper, M.D., author of Pregnancy,. Children and a Vegan Diet (Gentle World Inc., 1988), to comment, "Including animal products in your diet is like playing Russian roulette with your life." 15 You may get rid of your back problems. "Back pain appears to begin, not in the back, but in the arteries," says Neil Barnard, M.D., president of the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine and author of Foods That Fight Pain (Harmony Books, 1998). "The degeneration of disks, for instance, which leads to nerves being pinched, starts with the arteries leading to the back." Eating a plant-based diet keeps these arteries clear of cholesterol-causing blockages to help maintain a healthy back. 16 You'll be more "regular." Eating a lot of vegetables necessarily means consuming fiber, which pushes waste out of the body. Meat contains no fiber. Studies done at Harvard and Brigham Women's Hospital found that people who ate a high-fiber diet had a 42 percent lower risk of diverticulitis. People who eat lower on the food chain also tend to have fewer incidences of constipation, hemorrhoids and spastic colon. 17 You'll cool those hot flashes. Plants, grains and legumes--especially soy--contain phytoestrogens that are believed to balance fluctuating hormones, so vegetarian women tend to go through menopause with fewer complaints of sleep problems, hot flashes, fatigue, mood swings, weight gain, depression and a diminished sex drive. 18 You'll help to bring down the national debt. We spend between $60 billion to $120 billion annually to treat the heart disease, cancer, obesity, and food poisoning that are byproducts of a diet heavy on animal products.. 19 You'll preserve our fish population. Because of our voracious appetite for fish, 39 percent of the oceans' fish species are overharvested, and the Food & Agriculture Organization reports that 11 of 15 of the world's major fishing grounds have become depleted. 20 You'll help protect the purity of water. It takes 2,500 gallons of water to produce one pound of beef, but just 25 gallons of water to produce a pound of wheat. Not only is this wasteful, but it contributes to rampant water pollution. A 1997 study by the Senate Agriculture Committee found that 60 percent of American waterways were polluted, and the major reason is animal agriculture. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development lists nitrate pollution (from fertilizer and manure) as one of the most serious water-quality problems in Europe and the United States. 21 You'll provide a great role model for your kids. "If you set a good example and feed your children good food, chances are they'll live a longer and healthier life," says Christine Beard, a certified nutrition educator and author of Become a Vegetarian in 5 Easy Steps (McBooks Press, 1997). "You're also providing a market for vegetarian products and making it more likely that they'll be available for the children." 22 Going vegetarian is very easy to do. Vegetarian cooking has never been so simple. Supermarkets carry packaged convenience foods like tofu hot dogs, veggie burgers and soy yogurt, milk and cheeses. There's greater availability of vegetarian options in mall and arena food courts. Many more restaurants specializing in vegetarian food have opened, and others have added "veg-friendly" dishes to their menus. Even traditional fast food chains now offer salads, veggie burritos and vegetarian pizza. |
Vegetarianism
Vegetarianism Vegetarianism is the practice of following a diet based on plant-based foods including fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, nuts, and seeds, with or without dairy products and eggs.[1]Vegetarians do not eat meat, game, poultry, fish, crustacea, shellfish, or products of animal slaughter.[1][2][3] Variants of the diet exclude eggs and/or some products produced from animal labour such as dairy products and honey. The vegan diet is a form of vegetarianism which excludes all animal products from the diet, including dairy products, eggs, and honey. Most vegetarians consume dairy products, and many eat eggs. Lacto-vegetarianism includes dairy products but excludes eggs, ovo-vegetarianism includes eggs but not dairy, and lacto-ovo vegetarianism includes both eggs and dairy products. Semi-vegetarianism consists of a diet largely of vegetarian foods, but may include fish and sometimes poultry, as well as dairy products and eggs. The association of semi-vegetarianism with vegetarianism in popular vernacular, particularly pescetarianism (also called pesco-vegetarianism and described as one whose diet includes fish but no meat[4][5]), has led vegetarian groups such as the Vegetarian Society to cite this usage as improper categorisation of these diets as vegetarian.[6] Vegetarianism may be adopted for any of a number of reasons, including ethics, health,environmental, religion, politics, culture, aesthetics, or economics.Terminology and varieties of vegetarianism
Other dietary practices commonly associated with vegetarianism
Strict vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing e.g. cheeses that use animalrennet, gelatin (from animal skin, bones, and connective tissue), some sugars that are whitened with bone char (e.g. cane sugar, but not beet sugar) and alcohol clarified with gelatinor crushed shellfish and sturgeon. Vegetarians who eat eggs sometimes prefer free-range eggs (as opposed to battery farmed eggs). Semi-vegetarian dietsSemi-vegetarian diets primarily consist of vegetarian foods, but make exceptions for some non-vegetarian foods. These diets may be followed by those who choose to reduce the amount of animal flesh consumed, or sometimes as a way of transitioning to a vegetarian diet. These terms are neologisms based on the word "vegetarian". They may be regarded with contention by some strict vegetarians,[6] as they combine terms for vegetarian and non-vegetarian diets. Additionally, many individuals describe themselves as simply "vegetarian" while actually practicing a semi-vegetarian diet.[11]
EtymologyThe Vegetarian Society, founded in 1847, claims to have "created the word vegetarian from the Latin 'vegetus' meaning 'lively' (which is how these early vegetarians claimed their diet made them feel) ..."[12] However, the Oxford English Dictionary and other standard dictionaries state that the word was formed from the term "vegetable" and the suffix "-arian".[13] The Oxford English Dictionary also gives evidence that the word was already in use before the foundation of the Vegetarian Society:
but notes that "The general use of the word appears to have been largely due to the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847." HistoryMain article: History of vegetarianism The earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant number of people come from ancient India[14] and the ancient Greek civilisation in Southern Italy and in Greece in the 6th century BCE.[15] In both instances the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.[16] Following the Christianisation of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe.[17] Several orders of monks inmedieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.[18] Vegetarianism re-emerged somewhat in Europe during theRenaissance.[19] It became a more widespread practice in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847 the first Vegetarian Society was founded in England;[20] Germany, the Netherlands and other countries followed. The International Vegetarian Union, a union of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental andeconomic concerns. Today, Indian vegetarians, primarily lacto vegetarians, are estimated to make up more than 70% of the world's vegetarians. They make up 20–42% of the population in India, while less than 30% are regular meat-eaters.[21][22][23] The statewise data is as follows:[24]
Although direct statistics are not available for Bihar, the pattern is similar to Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab-Haryana. The pattern in Jammu and Kashmir is similar to those of Kerala,West Bengal and Orissa. Surveys in the U.S. have found that roughly 1–2.8% of adults eat no meat (including poultry or fish).[25][26][27][28] Health benefits and concernsVegetarianism is considered a healthy, viable diet. The American Dietetic Association and theDietitians of Canada have found a properly planned vegetarian diet to satisfy the nutritional needs for all stages of life, and large-scale studies have shown vegetarianism to significantly lower risks of cancer, ischaemic heart disease, and other fatal diseases.[30][31][32] Necessary nutrients, proteins, and amino acids for the body's sustenance can be found in vegetables, grains, nuts, soymilk, eggs and dairy.[33] Vegetarian diets can aid in keeping body weight under control[34][35] and substantially reduce risks of heart disease and osteoporosis.[36][36][37][37] Non-lean red meat, in particular, has been found to be directly associated with dramatically increased risk of cancers of the lung, oesophagus, liver, and colon.[38][39] Other studies have shown that there were no significant differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in mortality from cerebrovascular disease,stomach cancer, colorectal cancer,breast cancer, or prostate cancer, although the sample of vegetarians was small and included ex-smokers who had switched their diet within the last five years..[40] The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada have stated: "Vegetarian diets offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals."[32] Vegetarians tend to have lower body mass index, lower levels of cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and less incidence of heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, renal disease, osteoporosis, dementias such as Alzheimer’s Disease and other disorders.[41] Concerns are also expressed with relation to dental health. Lactic acid and uric acid can lead to demineralization of dentin and enamel.[42] Meat partially transforms to uric acid with digestion and red meat itself also contains uric acid as a product of nitrogen metabolism.[43][44] NutritionMain article: Vegetarian nutrition  Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids, but relatively low in long-chain n-3 fatty acids and vitamin B12. Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calciumif they do not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and tofu (soy). High levels of dietary fibre, folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.[45][46] ProteinProtein intake in vegetarian diets is only slightly lower than in meat diets and can meet daily requirements for any person, including athletes and bodybuilders.[47] Studies by Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and various European countries, have confirmed that vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.[48] Proteins are composed of amino acids, and a common concern with protein acquired from vegetable sources is an adequate intake of the "essential amino acids", which cannot be synthesised by the human body. While dairy and egg products provide complete sources for lacto-ovo vegetarians, the only vegetable sources with significant amounts of all eight types of essential amino acids are lupin, soy, hempseed, chia seed, amaranth,buckwheat, and quinoa. It is not necessary, however, to obtain protein from these sources—the essential amino acids can also be obtained by eating a variety of complementary plant sources that, in combination, provide all eight essential amino acids (e.g. brown rice andbeans, or hummus and whole wheat pita, though protein combining in the same meal is not necessary). A varied intake of such sources can be adequate, a 1994 study found.[49] Some years later, it became clear that even "combining proteins" is not necessary. As reported by Dr. Weil in 2000 in his print newsletter, and as reiterated in a 2002 post on his website, and again in the 2005 update:
IronVegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents. Vegetarian foods rich in iron include black beans,cashews, hempseed, kidney beans, lentils, oatmeal, raisins, black-eyed peas, soybeans, many breakfast cereals, sunflower seeds, chickpeas, tomato juice, tempeh, molasses, andwhole-wheat bread.[51] The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron.[46] Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians and iron deficiency is thus more common in vegetarian and vegan women and children (adult males are rarely iron deficient), however, iron deficiencyanaemia is rare no matter the diet.[52][53] Vitamin B12Plants are not generally significant sources of Vitamin B12.[54] However, lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B12 from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from fortified foods and dietary supplements.[55][56] Since the human body preserves B12 and reuses it without destroying the substance, clinical evidence of B12 deficiency is uncommon.[57][58] The body can preserve stores of the vitamin for up to 30 years without needing its supplies to be replenished.[54] The recommendation of taking supplements has been challenged by studies indicating that exogenous B12 may actually interfere with the proper absorption of this vitamin in its natural form.[59] The research on vitamin B12 sources has increased in the latest years.[60] Fatty acidsFish is a non-vegetarian source of Omega 3 fatty acids. Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources exist such as soy, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, canola oil and especially hempseed, chia seed,flaxseed, and purslane. Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any other known leafy green. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid but not the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA andDHA, which are found in low levels in eggs and dairy products. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels.[61] Recently, some companies have begun to market vegetarian DHA supplements containing seaweed extracts. Similar supplements providing both DHA and EPA have also begun to appear.[62] Whole seaweeds are not suitable for supplementation because their high iodine content limits the amount that may be safely consumed. However, certain algae such as spirulina are good sources of gamma-linolenic acid(GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).[63][64] CalciumCalcium intake in vegetarians is similar to non-vegetarians. Some impaired bone mineralisation has been found among vegans who do not consume enough leafy greens, which are sources of abundant calcium.[65] However, this is not found in lacto-ovo vegetarians.[66] Vitamin DVitamin D levels do not appear to be lower in vegetarians (although studies have shown that much of the general population is deficient[67][68]). Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible UV sun exposure.[69] Products includingmilk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a good source of Vitamin D[70] andmushrooms provide over 2700 IU per serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup) of vitamin D2, if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested;[71] for those who do not get adequate sun exposure and/or food sources, Vitamin D supplementation may be necessary. Intelligence and IQA study published in the British Medical Journal in 2007 compared childrens’ IQ at age 10 with their having a vegetarian diet at age 30. The report did not provide information on whether or not the children were already vegetarian at the time when their IQ measurement was taken. It also noted that there was no difference in IQ among those vegetarians who ate only plants, and those who also ate chicken and fish.[72] The BBC summarized part of the results of the study, stating "Men who were vegetarian had an IQ score of 106, compared with 101 for non-vegetarians; while female vegetarians averaged 104, compared with 99 for non-vegetarians."[73]The report concluded that “Higher scores for IQ in childhood are associated with an increased likelihood of being a vegetarian as an adult.”[72] Lead researcher Catharine Gale noted that this link may not be causal, but “may be merely an example of many other lifestyle preferences that might be expected to vary with intelligence.”[73] LongevityA 1999 metastudy[30] compared five major studies from western countries. The study found that the mortality ratio was the lowest in fish eaters (0.82) followed by vegetarians (0.84) and occasional meat eaters (0.84), and was then followed by regular meat eaters (1.0) and vegans(1.0).[74] When the study made its best estimate of mortality ratio with confounding factorsconsidered, the mortality ratio for vegetarians was found to be (0.94).[75] In "Mortality in British vegetarians",[31] it was concluded that "British vegetarians have low mortality compared with the general population. Their death rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians, suggesting that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle factors such as a low prevalence of smoking and a generally high socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the avoidance of meat and fish." The Adventist Health Study is an ongoing study of life expectancy in Seventh-day Adventists. This is the only study among others with similar methodology which had favourable indication for vegetarianism. The researchers found that a combination of different lifestyle choices could influence life expectancy by as much as 10 years. Among the lifestyle choices investigated, a vegetarian diet was estimated to confer an extra 1–1/2 to 2 years of life. The researchers concluded that "the life expectancies of California Adventist men and women are higher than those of any other well-described natural population" at 78.5 years for men and 82.3 years for women. The life expectancy of California Adventists surviving to age 30 was 83.3 years for men and 85.7 years for women.[76] The Adventist health study is again incorporated into a metastudy titled "Does low meat consumption increase life expectancy in humans?" published in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, which concluded that low meat eating (less than once per week) and other lifestyle choices significantly increase life expectancy, relative to a group with high meat intake.[77]The study concluded that "The findings from one cohort of healthy adults raises the possibility that long-term (≥ 2 decades) adherence to a vegetarian diet can further produce a significant 3.6-y increase in life expectancy." However, the study also concluded that "Some of the variation in the survival advantage in vegetarians may have been due to marked differences between studies in adjustment for confounders, the definition of vegetarian, measurement error, age distribution, the healthy volunteer effect, and intake of specific plant foods by the vegetarians." It further states that "This raises the possibility that a low-meat, high plant-food dietary pattern may be the true causal protective factor rather than simply elimination of meat from the diet." In a recent review of studies relating low-meat diet patterns to all-cause mortality, Singh noted that "5 out of 5 studies indicated that adults who followed a low meat, high plant-food diet pattern experienced significant or marginally significant decreases in mortality risk relative to other patterns of intake." Statistical studies, such as comparing life expectancy with regional areas and local diets in Europe also have found life expectancy considerably greater in southern France, where a low meat, high plant Mediterranean diet is common, than northern France, where a diet with high meat content is more common.[78] A study by the Institute of Preventive and Clinical Medicine, and Institute of Physiological Chemistry looked at a group of 19 vegetarians (lacto-ovo) and used as a comparison a group of 19 omnivorous subjects recruited from the same region. The study found that this group of vegetarians (lacto-ovo) have a significantly higher amount of plasma carboxymethyllysine andadvanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) compared to this group of omnivores.[79]Carboxymethyllysine is a glycation product which represents "a general marker of oxidative stress and long-term damage of proteins in aging, atherosclerosis and diabetes." "Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) may play an important adverse role in process of atherosclerosis, diabetes, aging and chronic renal failure." The researchers theorised that it may be the higher fructose intake of these particular vegetarians (from higher fruit and vegetable intake) that increased their AGEs levels.[citation needed] Vegetarianism is believed to reduce E. coli infections,[80] and proponents point to the link between E. coli contaminations in food and industrial scale meat and dairy farms. A 2006 United States E. coli outbreak was traced to a nearby beef cattle operation."[81] E. coli can be acquired from any excrement-contaminated food or human commensal bacteria. The recent cases of spinach and onions with E. coli contamination in the U.S. shows that vegetarian foods are also susceptible to food safety concerns.[82][83] In 2005, some people who had consumed triple-washed, pre-packaged lettuce were infected with E. coli,[84]and in 2007, branded lettuce salad were recalled after they were found to be contaminated byE. coli[85] In fact E. coli outbreaks have also involved unpasteurised apples,[86] orange juice, milk, alfalfa sprouts,[87] and even water.[88] Other food scaresVarious animal food safety scares over recent years have led to increased numbers of people choosing a semi-vegetarian or vegetarian diet.[89] These scares have included Avian influenzain poultry, foot-and-mouth disease in sheep, PCBs in farmed salmon, mercury in fish, generally high dioxin concentrations in animal products, and artificial growth hormones,antibiotics or BSE, also known as Mad Cow Disease, in cows. According to various organisations, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans is strongly linked with exposure to the BSE agent that has been found in beef.[90] Toxins such as lead and mercury canbioaccumulate in animal products in higher concentrations than what is considered safe.[91]Vegetables and fruits have a risk of being contaminated by pesticide residue or by banned chemicals being used to ripen fruits.[92][93][94] Recent cases of several widespread outbreaks of salmonella infection, including outbreaks from contaminated peanut butter, frozen pot pies & puffed vegetable snacks also indicate that vegetarian foodstuff is susceptible to contamination.[95] Medical useIn Western medicine, patients are sometimes advised to adhere to a vegetarian diet.[96]Certain alternative medicines, such as Ayurveda and Siddha, prescribe a vegetarian diet as a normal procedure.[97] PhysiologyThe mainstream scientific consensus is that humans are physiologically best suited to anomnivore diet. The Vegetarian Resource Group, among others, has concluded that humans are naturally omnivores based on the human ability to digest meat, as well as plant foods,[98][99] with the correspondent metabolic tendency to an adaptation that makes them need both animal and vegetable nourishment. Other arguments hold that humans are more anatomically similar to herbivores, with long intestinal tracts and blunt teeth, unlike omnivores and carnivores. Human teeth, including relatively blunt canines, are more similar to those found in animals with herbivore diets than in carnivores and most omnivores.[100] Nutritional experts believe that early hominids evolved into eating meat as a result of huge climatic changes that took place three to four million years ago, when forests and jungles dried up and became open grasslands and opened hunting and scavenging opportunities.[100][101] Animal-to-human disease transmissionsThe consumption of meat can cause a transmission of a number of diseases from animals to humans.[102] The connection between infected animal and human illness is well established in the case of salmonella; an estimated one-third to one-half of all chicken meat marketed in the United States is contaminated with salmonella.[102] Only recently, however, have scientists begun to suspect that there is a similar connection between animal meat and human cancer, birth defects, mutations, and many other diseases in humans.[102][103][104][105][106][107][108] In 1975, one study found 75 percent of supermarket samples of cow's milk, and 75 percent of egg samples to contain the leukemia (cancer) virus.[103] By 1985, nearly 100 percent of the eggs tested, or the hens they came from, had the cancer virus.[102][103] The rate of disease among chickens is so high that the Department of Labor has ranked the poultry industry as one of the most hazardous occupations - not for the chickens but for those who raise, slaughter and process them.[102] 20 percent of all cows are afflicted with a variety of cancer known as bovine leukemia virus (BLV).[102] Studies have increasingly linked BLV with HTLV-1, the first human retrovirus discovered to cause cancer.[102] Scientists have successfully infected human cells with a bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV), the equivalent of the AIDS virus in cows.[102] It is supposed that BIV may have a role in the development of a number of malignant or slow viruses in humans.[102][clarification needed] The proximity of animals in industrial-scale animal farming leads to an increased rate of disease transmission. Transition of animal influenza viruses to humans has been documented, but illness from such cases is rare compared to that caused by the now common human-adapted older influenza viruses,[109] transferred from animals to humans in the more distant past.[110][111][112][113] The first documented case was in 1959, and in 1998, 18 new human cases of H5N1 influenza were diagnosed, in which six people died. In 1997 more cases of H5N1 avian influenza were found in chickens in Hong Kong.[109] Whether tuberculosis originated in cattle and was then transferred to humans, or diverged from a common ancestor infecting a different species, is currently unclear..[114] The strongest evidence for a domestic-animal origin exists for measles and pertussis, although the data do not exclude a non-domestic origin. [115] According to the 'Hunter Theory', the "simplest and most plausible explanation for the cross-species transmission" the AIDS virus was transmitted from a chimpanzee to a human when a bushmeat hunter was bitten or cut while hunting or butchering an animal. [116] Historian Norman Cantor, in In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World It made (2001), suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of anthrax, a cattle murrain. He cites many forms of evidence including the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague. Additional reasons for a vegetarian dietEthicsVarious ethical reasons have been suggested for choosing vegetarianism.. It has been argued, for example, that the production, slaughter, and consumption of meat or animal products isunethical. Reasons for this include a belief in animal rights, an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on other sentient beings, or a belief that the unnecessary killing of other animals is inherently wrong. It has also been argued that although production and consumption of meat may be acceptable on its own terms, the methods by which animals are reared in the commercial industry are unethical. The book Animal Liberation by Peter Singer has been very influential on the animal rights movement and specifically ethics-based vegetarianism. In developed countries, ethical vegetarianism has become popular particularly after the spread of factory farming, a system of livestock farming where animals are kept indoors throughout the greater part of their lives in conditions of very restricted mobility. Pigs, chickens, and veal calves are the animals most often kept under these conditions.[117] Arguments that do not pertain to animal rights exist in many vegetarian philosophies as well. The advance of global warming is one of these key issues in environmental vegetarians. According to a study done by the University of Chicago and reprinted in Time magazine, switching from a meat-eating diet to vegetarianism reduces one carbon footprint by 1.4 times the amount of switching from a Toyota Camry to a Hybrid car. This is because of the amount of methane produced by livestock, methane being a 32% more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Shipment of the grain and the cattle itself also plays a part in this issue, being that it takes 8 pounds of grain to get 1 pound of meat. Many vegetarians feel that eating so high up on the food chain plays too large a part in global starvation to justify meat consumption. ReligionMain article: Vegetarianism and religion  Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism teach vegetarianism as moral conduct. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, while Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion. Other denominations that advocate a fully vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists, the Rastafari movement and the Hare Krishnas.Sikhism[118][119][120] does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.[121] HinduismMain articles: Vegetarianism in Hinduism and Hindu dietary law Most major paths of Hinduism hold vegetarianism as an ideal. There are three main reasons for this: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;[122] the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasad;[123] and the conviction that non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development. Nonviolence is a common concern of all the vegetarian traditions in Hinduism; the other two aspects are relevant for those who follow special spiritual paths.[citation needed] However, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community and according to regional traditions. Hindu vegetarians usually eschew eggs but consume milk and dairy products, so they are lacto-vegetarians. Milk and milk products are vital in the traditional food habits of India.[citation needed] JainismMain article: Jain vegetarianism Followers of Jainism are most commonly lacto-vegetarians. No products obtained from dead animals are allowed. Jains hold vegetarianism as the ideal diet in a similar fashion to Hindu traditions but with emphasis on their principle of non-violence (ahimsa). This is for them an indispensable condition for spiritual progress.[124][125] Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians.[126] Honey is forbidden, because its collection is seen as violence against the bees. Some Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.[127] Buddhism Main article: Vegetarianism in Buddhism Theravadins consider that taking of life and eating meat which is killed on their behalf to be the same. If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense. Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them to eat meat (except specific types, such as human flesh) nor did he make any rule or prohibition in his religion on any thing. Killing of any creature however great or small is an offense (against the first precept).[citation needed] In Mahayana Buddhism, there are several Sanskrit texts where the Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat. Mahayana Buddhism advises monks to be strictly vegetarian and it is recommended for laypeople, but not required.[citation needed] SikhismMain article: Vegetarianism in Sikhism Followers of Sikhism do not have a preference for meat or vegetarian consumption.[128][129][130][131] Although many Sikhs do eat meat, some initiated Sikhs or "amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (eg Akhand Kirtani Jatha, Namdhari,[132]Rarionwalay[133]) abstain from the consumption of meat and eggs.[134] Mainstream "amritdhari" Sikhs, those that follow the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Sikh code of conduct[135]), are not compelled to be meat free. In the case of meat, the Sikh Gurus have indicated their preference for a simple diet,[136]which could include meat or be vegetarian. Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that fools argue over this issue. Guru Nanaksaid that any consumption of food involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.[137] The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, prohibited the Sikhs from the consumption ofhalal or Kutha (any ritually slaughtered meat) meat because of the Sikh belief that sacrificing an animal in the name of God is mere ritualism (something to be avoided).[128] JudaismA number of medieval scholars of Jewish religion (e.g. Joseph Albo) regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal, not just because of a concern for the welfare of animals, but because of the fact that the slaughter of animals might cause the individual who performs such acts to develop negative character traits. Therefore, their concern was with regard to possible harmful effects upon human character rather than with animal welfare. Indeed, Rabbi Joseph Albo maintains that renunciation of the consumption of meat for reasons of concern for animal welfare is not only morally erroneous but even repugnant.[138] One modern-day scholar who is often cited as in favour of vegetarianism is the late RabbiAbraham Isaac Kook, the Chief Rabbi of Pre-State Israel. It is indeed the case that in his writings, Rabbi Kook speaks of vegetarianism as an ideal, and points to the fact that Adam did not partake of the flesh of animals. In context, however, Rabbi Kook makes those comments in his portrayal of the eschatological (messianic) era. He regards man's moral state in that period as being akin to that of Adam before his sin and does indeed view renunciation of enjoyment of animal flesh as part of the heightened moral awareness which will be manifest at that time.[citation needed] According to some Kabbalists, only a mystic, who is able to sense and elevate the reincarnated human souls and "divine sparks", is permitted to consume meat, though eating the flesh of an animal might still cause spiritual damage to the soul. A number of Orthodox Jewish vegetarian groups and activists promote such ideas and believe that the halakhicpermission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet.[139] Having ties with both ancient Judaism and Christianity, members of the ancient Essenereligious group practiced strict vegetarianism sharing a similar belief with the Hindus'/Jains' idea of Ahimsa or "harmlessness".[140] Translation of the Torah's Ten Commandments state "thou shalt not murder."[141][142] Many argue that this can also be taken as meaning not to kill at all, animals nor humans, or at least "that one shall not kill unnecessarily," in the same manner that onerous restrictions on slavery in the Bible have been interpreted by modern theologians as to suggest banning the practice.[143] It is written in the Torah, in the book of Devarim "When YHVH your God enlarges your border, as He has promised you, and you will say: 'I will eat meat', because your being desires to eat meat; you may eat meat, after all that your being desires."[citation needed] While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, the choice must be made in regard to the ethics and ideals of Judaism"The Vegetarian Mitzvah".http://www.brook.com/jveg. ChristianityMain article: Christian vegetarianism While vegetarianism is not a common practice in current western Christian thought and culture, the concept and practice have scriptural and historical support. According to the Bible, in the beginning, humans and animals were vegetarian.(Genesis 1:29–30) Immediately after the Flood, God permitted the eating of meat, (Genesis 9:3) however, some maintain that God permitted the consumption of meat temporarily because all plants had been destroyed as a result of the flood.[144] Some Christians believe that the Bible explains that, in the future, humans and animals will return to vegetarianism.(Isaiah 11:7–9)[citation needed] There is also a strong association between the Quaker tradition within Christianity and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."[145] IslamSee also: Islam and animals Islam allows the consumption of meat, if the meat is "halal". The choice to live vegetarian is a personal decision only, supported by a general religious philosophy stressing kind treatment of animals. Vegetarianism has been practiced by some influential Muslims including the Iraqi theologian, female mystic and poet Râbi‘ah al-‘Adawîyah of Basrah, who died in the year 801, and the Sri Lankan sufi master Bawa Muhaiyaddeen who established The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship of North America in Philadelphia.[146] Muslims have the freedom of choice to be vegetarian for medical reasons or if they do not personally like the taste of meat. However, the choice to become vegetarian can be controversial. Although the number of Muslim vegetarians today is increasing, individual adherents tend to keep quiet about it.[147] In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.[148] Many Muslims who normally eat meat will select vegetarian options when dining in non-halal restaurants. This way they can be certain to observe dietary restrictions.[citation needed] RastafariWithin the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are Rastafarian and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only Ital or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long and skillfully laid down tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.[149] Most Rastafarians are vegetarian. Utensils made from natural material such as stone or earthenware are preferred. NeopaganismMany who practice a faith that falls under the Neopagan umbrella also practice vegetarianism. Since Neopaganism generally emphasises the sanctity of Earth and Nature, a vegetarian diet is sometimes adopted out of concern for the environment and/or animal welfare.[150] EnvironmentalMain article: Environmental vegetarianism Environmental vegetarianism is based on the belief that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially through factory farming, is environmentallyunsustainable. According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, and modern practices of raising animals for food contributes on a "massive scale" to air and water pollution, land degradation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that "the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global."[151] In July 2009 Nike and Timberland stopped buying leather from deforested Amazon [152] a few weeks after Greenpeace report demonstrated the destruction caused by Amazon cattle ranchers. According to Arnold Newman every hamburger sold results in destruction of 6.25m2 of rain forest. [153] In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases and is responsible for 18 percent of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all of the world's transportation (including all cars, trucks, buses, trains, ships, and planes) emits 13.5 percent of the CO2. Animal farming produces 65 percent of human-related nitrous oxide and 37 percent of all human-induced methane. Methane has about 21 times more Global Warming Potential (GWP) than Carbon Dioxide and Nitrous Oxide has 296 times the GWP of CO2. [154] The habitat for wildlife provided by large industrial monoculture farms is very poor, and modern industrial agriculture has been considered a threat to biodiversity[155] compared with farming practices such as organic farming, permaculture, pastoral, and rainfed agriculture. On 23 January 2008 Mr. José Manuel Barroso, President of the European Commission, presented a comprehensive package of strategies in the fight against climate change, which does not mention meat industry. In open letter to EU Parliement EVANA stated: EC scheme 20/20 by 2020 named "Europe's Climate Change Opportunity" suggests paying €3 a week. "However, it is very regrettable indeed that the individual will be obliged to finance a safer environment whilst the meat industry, one of the greatest culprits for the degradation, is allowed to enjoy ‘business as usual’ and continued payments of lavish subsidies!" [156] Animals fed on grain, and those that rely on grazing, need far more water than grain crops.[157] According to the USDA, growing the crops necessary to feed farmed animals requires nearly half of the United States' water supply and 80 percent of its agricultural land. Additionally, animals raised for food in the U.S. consume 90 percent of the soy crop, 80 percent of the corn crop, and a total of 70 percent of its grain.[158] When tracking food animal production from the feed trough to consumption, the inefficiencies of meat, milk and egg production range from 4:1 up to 54:1 energy input to protein output ratio. This firstly because the feed first needs to be grown before it is eaten by the cattle, and secondly because warm-blooded vertebrates need to use a lot of calories just to stay warm (unlike plants or insects).[159] An index which can be used as a measure is the efficiency of conversion of ingested food to body substance, which indicates, for example, that only 10% is converted to body substance by beef cattle, versus 19–31% by silkworms and 44% byGerman cockroaches.[159] Ecology professor David Pimentel has claimed, "If all the grain currently fed to livestock in the United States were consumed directly by people, the number of people who could be fed would be nearly 800 million."[160] To produce animal based food seems to be, according to these studies, typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes, seeds and fruits. However, this would not apply to animals that are grazed rather than fed, especially those grazed on land that could not be used for other purposes. Nor would it apply to cultivation of insects for food, which may be more environmentally sustainable than eating food coming from cattle farming.[159] Meat produced in a laboratory (called in vitro meat) may be also more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.[161] According to the theory of trophic dynamics, it requires 10 times as many crops to feed animals being bred for meat production as it would to feed the same number of people on a vegetarian diet. Currently, 70 percent of all the wheat, corn, and other grain produced is fed to farmed animals.[162] This has led many proponents of vegetarianism to believe that it is ecologically irresponsible to consume meat.[163] Rearing a relatively small number grazing animals is often beneficial, as observed by the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University, which reports, "A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment".[164]
In May 2009, Ghent was reported to be "the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week" for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a "weekly meatless day". Civil servants would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations' report. Posters were put up by local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and "veggie street maps" were printed to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weekly veggiedag ("vegetarian day") too.[166] Labour conditionsSome groups, such as PETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry.[167] These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.[168][169][170][171] However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.[172] Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.[173] In fact, according to the International Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world.[174] EconomicalSimilar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the WorldWatch Institute, "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."[175]Economic vegetarians also may include people from third world countries who follow a de facto vegetarian diet due to the high price of meat.[citation needed] PsychologicalSome vegetarians choose to be so in part because they find meat and meat products aesthetically unappetising.[citation needed] The metaphor by Douglas Dunn is that if one gives a young child an apple and a live chicken, the child would instinctively play with the chicken and eat the apple, whereas if a cat were presented with the same choices, its natural impulse would be the opposite.[176] Though this may be considered a flawed comparison, as cats are carnivores and not omnivores, it has been noted that comparatively omnivorous human-like species such as chimpanzees' offspring may not instinctively kill prey animals such as Senegal Bushbabieswhen presented with one and a piece of fruit either.[177] The comparison may also suffer from the "Appeal to nature" logical fallacy. In a similar assertion, Scott Adams, who is also a vegetarian, once wrote humorously: "I point out that a live cow makes a lion salivate, whereas a human just wants to say 'moo' and see if the cow responds."[178] However, this does not mean that humans naturally find eating meat unappetising simply because they can interact with other animals without regarding them as food: this same non-predatory inter-species interaction can be seen in chimpanzees, which have been seen toying with other animals without regarding them as prey and even occasionally socialising with other species.[179] Cultural People may choose vegetarianism because they were raised in a vegetarian household or because of a vegetarian partner, family member, or friend. A predominantly and traditionally vegetarian society also facilitates the continuance of such a tradition.[citation needed] Limited vegetarianism has appeal for some young people in Western societies. A 2007 University of Michigan Medical School experiment on the diffusion of memes included an attempt to encourage limited vegetarianism. The experiment led to the meme "Vegetarian Wednesday", a day when otherwise non-vegetarians consume a vegetarian diet.[citation needed] DemographicsGenderA 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organisation claimed that "of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who call themselves vegetarian, 68 percent are female while only 32 percent are male."[180] At least one study indicates that vegetarian women are more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 "found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to 100 girls."[181] Catherine Collins of the British Dietetic Association has dismissed this as a "statistical fluke".[181] There is speculation that diets high in soy, due to high isoflavone content, can have a feminising effect on human infants due to their action as phytoestrogens. Proponents of this theory claim that diets high in isoflavones promote earlier onset of female puberty and delayed male puberty.[182] However, a 2001 study conducted by the University of Pennsylvania found no significant differences in the later onset of puberty between infants raised on soy-based formula and cow milk formula.[183] Country-specific informationMain article: Vegetarianism in specific countries  Vegetarianism is viewed in different ways around the world. In some areas there is cultural and even legal support, but in others the diet is poorly understood or even frowned upon. In many countries food labelling is in place that makes it easier for vegetarians to identify foods compatible with their diets. In India, not only is there food labelling, but many restaurants are marketed and signed as being either "Vegetarian" or "Non-Vegetarian". People who are vegetarian in India are usuallyLacto-vegetarians, and therefore, to cater for this market, the majority of vegetarian restaurants in India do serve dairy products while eschewing egg products. Most Western vegetarian restaurants, in comparison, do serve eggs and egg-based products. |
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